emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate in Malaysia
Malaysia: emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate was -1.64 % change on previous year in 2022. ◆ Volatile
emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate in Malaysia, 1751–2022
Source: Statizoid (derived). Measured in % change on previous year.
Analysis
In 2022, emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate in Malaysia stood at -1.64 % change on previous year.
Compared with earlier readings it is up 47.8% on the previous year and down 145.7% over ten years.
Over the whole period, emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate in Malaysia peaked at 31.08 % change on previous year in 2013 and was at its lowest, -20.12 % change on previous year, in 1972.
Malaysia ranks 167th of 219 countries on this measure, in the bottom quarter.
The series is highly variable year to year, so single readings are best treated with caution.
emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate in Malaysia, year by year
| Year | % change on previous year | Change |
|---|---|---|
| 1751 | 0.1526 % change on previous year | — |
| 1752 | 0.1522 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1753 | 0.152 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1754 | 0.1515 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1755 | 0.1512 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1756 | 0.1508 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1757 | 0.1505 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1758 | 0.1502 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1759 | 0.1498 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1760 | 0.1495 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1761 | 0.1495 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1762 | 0.149 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1763 | 0.1486 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1764 | 0.1484 % change on previous year | -0.1% |
| 1765 | 0.1479 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1766 | 0.1477 % change on previous year | -0.1% |
| 1767 | 0.1473 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1768 | 0.1469 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1769 | 0.1466 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1770 | 0.1462 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1771 | 0.1459 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1772 | 0.1455 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1773 | 0.1451 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1774 | 0.1448 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1775 | 0.1445 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1776 | 0.1441 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1777 | 0.1437 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1778 | 0.1434 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1779 | 0.143 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1780 | 0.1428 % change on previous year | -0.1% |
| 1781 | 0.1419 % change on previous year | -0.6% |
| 1782 | 0.1416 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1783 | 0.1412 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1784 | 0.1409 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1785 | 0.1405 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1786 | 0.1401 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1787 | 0.1397 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1788 | 0.1395 % change on previous year | -0.1% |
| 1789 | 0.139 % change on previous year | -0.4% |
| 1790 | 0.1388 % change on previous year | -0.1% |
| 1791 | 0.1375 % change on previous year | -0.9% |
| 1792 | 0.1372 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1793 | 0.1369 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1794 | 0.1365 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1795 | 0.1361 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1796 | 0.1357 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1797 | 0.1354 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1798 | 0.1351 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1799 | 0.1348 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1800 | 0.1344 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1801 | 0.1328 % change on previous year | -1.2% |
| 1802 | 0.1325 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1803 | 0.132 % change on previous year | -0.4% |
| 1804 | 0.1317 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1805 | 0.1314 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1806 | 0.131 % change on previous year | -0.4% |
| 1807 | 0.1306 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1808 | 0.1303 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1809 | 0.1299 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1810 | 0.1295 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1811 | 0.1276 % change on previous year | -1.5% |
| 1812 | 0.1271 % change on previous year | -0.4% |
| 1813 | 0.1268 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1814 | 0.1265 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1815 | 0.126 % change on previous year | -0.4% |
| 1816 | 0.1257 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1817 | 0.1253 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1818 | 0.1249 % change on previous year | -0.4% |
| 1819 | 0.1246 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1820 | 0.1241 % change on previous year | -0.4% |
| 1821 | 1.75 % change on previous year | +1313.1% |
| 1822 | 1.72 % change on previous year | -1.9% |
| 1823 | 1.69 % change on previous year | -1.8% |
| 1824 | 1.66 % change on previous year | -1.8% |
| 1825 | 1.63 % change on previous year | -1.7% |
| 1826 | 1.6 % change on previous year | -1.8% |
| 1827 | 1.58 % change on previous year | -1.7% |
| 1828 | 1.55 % change on previous year | -1.7% |
| 1829 | 1.52 % change on previous year | -1.6% |
| 1830 | 1.5 % change on previous year | -1.7% |
| 1831 | 2.43 % change on previous year | +62.1% |
| 1832 | 2.37 % change on previous year | -2.5% |
| 1833 | 2.31 % change on previous year | -2.5% |
| 1834 | 2.25 % change on previous year | -2.4% |
| 1835 | 2.2 % change on previous year | -2.3% |
| 1836 | 2.15 % change on previous year | -2.3% |
| 1837 | 2.1 % change on previous year | -2.2% |
| 1838 | 2.06 % change on previous year | -2.2% |
| 1839 | 2.01 % change on previous year | -2.2% |
| 1840 | 1.97 % change on previous year | -2.1% |
| 1841 | 2.42 % change on previous year | +23.0% |
| 1842 | 2.36 % change on previous year | -2.5% |
| 1843 | 2.3 % change on previous year | -2.5% |
| 1844 | 2.25 % change on previous year | -2.4% |
| 1845 | 2.19 % change on previous year | -2.4% |
| 1846 | 2.14 % change on previous year | -2.3% |
| 1847 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -2.2% |
| 1848 | 2.05 % change on previous year | -2.2% |
| 1849 | 2 % change on previous year | -2.2% |
| 1850 | 1.96 % change on previous year | -2.1% |
| 1851 | 2.09 % change on previous year | +6.4% |
| 1852 | 2.09 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1853 | 2.09 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1854 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1855 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1856 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1857 | 2.09 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1858 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1859 | 2.09 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1860 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1861 | 2.09 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1862 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1863 | 2.09 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1864 | 2.09 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1865 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1866 | 2.09 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1867 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1868 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1869 | 2.09 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1870 | 2.33 % change on previous year | +11.5% |
| 1871 | 3.42 % change on previous year | +47.2% |
| 1872 | 3.42 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1873 | 3.42 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1874 | 3.42 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1875 | 4.09 % change on previous year | +19.7% |
| 1876 | 5.11 % change on previous year | +24.8% |
| 1877 | 4.9 % change on previous year | -4.0% |
| 1878 | 4.71 % change on previous year | -3.8% |
| 1879 | 4.54 % change on previous year | -3.6% |
| 1880 | 4.39 % change on previous year | -3.4% |
| 1881 | 1.98 % change on previous year | -54.8% |
| 1882 | 1.99 % change on previous year | +0.5% |
| 1883 | 1.88 % change on previous year | -5.5% |
| 1884 | 1.9 % change on previous year | +0.7% |
| 1885 | 3.34 % change on previous year | +76.0% |
| 1886 | 3.52 % change on previous year | +5.4% |
| 1887 | 3.7 % change on previous year | +5.2% |
| 1888 | 3.51 % change on previous year | -5.2% |
| 1889 | 3.51 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1890 | 3.53 % change on previous year | +0.6% |
| 1891 | 3.47 % change on previous year | -1.8% |
| 1892 | 3.47 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1893 | 3.47 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1894 | 3.47 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1895 | 3.47 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1896 | 3.5 % change on previous year | +1.0% |
| 1897 | 3.5 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1898 | 3.47 % change on previous year | -1.0% |
| 1899 | 3.47 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1900 | 3.46 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1901 | 3.56 % change on previous year | +2.7% |
| 1902 | 3.62 % change on previous year | +1.8% |
| 1903 | 3.63 % change on previous year | +0.3% |
| 1904 | 3.73 % change on previous year | +2.6% |
| 1905 | 3.73 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1906 | 3.71 % change on previous year | -0.4% |
| 1907 | 3.7 % change on previous year | -0.2% |
| 1908 | 3.7 % change on previous year | -0.3% |
| 1909 | 3.72 % change on previous year | +0.7% |
| 1910 | 3.49 % change on previous year | -6.2% |
| 1911 | 3.57 % change on previous year | +2.4% |
| 1912 | 3.26 % change on previous year | -8.7% |
| 1913 | 3.65 % change on previous year | +11.8% |
| 1914 | 4.16 % change on previous year | +14.0% |
| 1915 | 3.34 % change on previous year | -19.7% |
| 1916 | 4.41 % change on previous year | +32.2% |
| 1917 | 2.27 % change on previous year | -48.4% |
| 1918 | 2.64 % change on previous year | +16.0% |
| 1919 | 3.23 % change on previous year | +22.6% |
| 1920 | 5.07 % change on previous year | +56.9% |
| 1921 | 4.64 % change on previous year | -8.6% |
| 1922 | 9.85 % change on previous year | +112.3% |
| 1923 | 7.39 % change on previous year | -24.9% |
| 1924 | 0.2105 % change on previous year | -97.2% |
| 1925 | 5.75 % change on previous year | +2633.3% |
| 1926 | 5.03 % change on previous year | -12.6% |
| 1927 | 2.17 % change on previous year | -56.9% |
| 1928 | 3.22 % change on previous year | +48.2% |
| 1929 | 2.23 % change on previous year | -30.5% |
| 1930 | 0.5714 % change on previous year | -74.4% |
| 1931 | -1.73 % change on previous year | -402.5% |
| 1932 | -2.31 % change on previous year | +33.7% |
| 1933 | 1.84 % change on previous year | -179.5% |
| 1934 | 1.2 % change on previous year | -34.5% |
| 1935 | 1.68 % change on previous year | +39.9% |
| 1936 | 1.6 % change on previous year | -5.2% |
| 1937 | 2.24 % change on previous year | +40.3% |
| 1938 | 2.3 % change on previous year | +2.6% |
| 1939 | 1.76 % change on previous year | -23.4% |
| 1940 | 2.2 % change on previous year | +25.2% |
| 1941 | 1.83 % change on previous year | -16.9% |
| 1942 | -0.9874 % change on previous year | -153.9% |
| 1943 | 1.08 % change on previous year | -208.9% |
| 1944 | 1.04 % change on previous year | -3.2% |
| 1945 | 1.03 % change on previous year | -1.2% |
| 1946 | 1 % change on previous year | -2.8% |
| 1947 | 1.44 % change on previous year | +43.9% |
| 1948 | 3.08 % change on previous year | +113.7% |
| 1949 | 3.04 % change on previous year | -1.2% |
| 1950 | 7.37 % change on previous year | +142.7% |
| 1951 | 3.37 % change on previous year | -54.3% |
| 1952 | 3.95 % change on previous year | +17.2% |
| 1953 | 3.79 % change on previous year | -4.0% |
| 1954 | 3.63 % change on previous year | -4.4% |
| 1955 | 3.11 % change on previous year | -14.2% |
| 1956 | 3.84 % change on previous year | +23.2% |
| 1957 | 14.74 % change on previous year | +284.4% |
| 1958 | 4.23 % change on previous year | -71.3% |
| 1959 | 0.8839 % change on previous year | -79.1% |
| 1960 | 5.9 % change on previous year | +567.9% |
| 1961 | 3.81 % change on previous year | -35.4% |
| 1962 | 2.91 % change on previous year | -23.7% |
| 1963 | 5.08 % change on previous year | +74.5% |
| 1964 | 5.79 % change on previous year | +13.9% |
| 1965 | 3.64 % change on previous year | -37.1% |
| 1966 | 3.64 % change on previous year | +0.0% |
| 1967 | 0.9301 % change on previous year | -74.5% |
| 1968 | 0.9297 % change on previous year | -0.0% |
| 1969 | -3.01 % change on previous year | -423.3% |
| 1970 | 10.98 % change on previous year | -465.3% |
| 1971 | 25.76 % change on previous year | +134.6% |
| 1972 | -20.12 % change on previous year | -178.1% |
| 1973 | 4.55 % change on previous year | -122.6% |
| 1974 | 2.97 % change on previous year | -34.6% |
| 1975 | 2.38 % change on previous year | -20.1% |
| 1976 | 4.86 % change on previous year | +104.6% |
| 1977 | -1.76 % change on previous year | -136.3% |
| 1978 | 3.01 % change on previous year | -270.6% |
| 1979 | 6.4 % change on previous year | +112.7% |
| 1980 | 5.5 % change on previous year | -14.0% |
| 1981 | 4.39 % change on previous year | -20.3% |
| 1982 | 4.75 % change on previous year | +8.2% |
| 1983 | 8.36 % change on previous year | +76.1% |
| 1984 | 4.41 % change on previous year | -47.3% |
| 1985 | 5.09 % change on previous year | +15.5% |
| 1986 | 2.87 % change on previous year | -43.7% |
| 1987 | 3.72 % change on previous year | +29.7% |
| 1988 | 3.84 % change on previous year | +3.3% |
| 1989 | 6.09 % change on previous year | +58.7% |
| 1990 | 7.41 % change on previous year | +21.7% |
| 1991 | 6.98 % change on previous year | -5.8% |
| 1992 | 5.37 % change on previous year | -23.1% |
| 1993 | 8 % change on previous year | +49.0% |
| 1994 | 8.81 % change on previous year | +10.1% |
| 1995 | 3.35 % change on previous year | -61.9% |
| 1996 | 11.3 % change on previous year | +237.0% |
| 1997 | 6.86 % change on previous year | -39.3% |
| 1998 | 2.97 % change on previous year | -56.6% |
| 1999 | 11.8 % change on previous year | +297.0% |
| 2000 | -2.07 % change on previous year | -117.5% |
| 2001 | 4.25 % change on previous year | -305.3% |
| 2002 | 4.46 % change on previous year | +5.0% |
| 2003 | 4.91 % change on previous year | +10.2% |
| 2004 | 4.97 % change on previous year | +1.0% |
| 2005 | 3.06 % change on previous year | -38.4% |
| 2006 | 3.81 % change on previous year | +24.4% |
| 2007 | 3.9 % change on previous year | +2.5% |
| 2008 | 5.46 % change on previous year | +39.9% |
| 2009 | -4.28 % change on previous year | -178.4% |
| 2010 | 4.91 % change on previous year | -214.7% |
| 2011 | -11.02 % change on previous year | -324.4% |
| 2012 | 3.59 % change on previous year | -132.6% |
| 2013 | 31.08 % change on previous year | +764.6% |
| 2014 | 2.69 % change on previous year | -91.3% |
| 2015 | -2.15 % change on previous year | -179.9% |
| 2016 | 6.72 % change on previous year | -412.1% |
| 2017 | -2.72 % change on previous year | -140.5% |
| 2018 | -2.96 % change on previous year | +9.1% |
| 2019 | 21.49 % change on previous year | -825.0% |
| 2020 | -11.6 % change on previous year | -154.0% |
| 2021 | -3.14 % change on previous year | -72.9% |
| 2022 | -1.64 % change on previous year | -47.8% |
Malaysia compared with similar countries
- Malaysia's -1.64 % change on previous year is below the median for upper middle income countries, which is -0.0344 % change on previous year, 47.8× the median. (57 countries reporting)
- Malaysia's -1.64 % change on previous year is above the median for East Asia & Pacific, which is -1.94 % change on previous year, 85% of the median. (34 countries reporting)
Biggest year-on-year movements
Years where emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate in Malaysia changed far more than this series normally does. A large move can be a real event or a change in how the figure was measured — the source note below says who published it.
| Year | Change | From | To |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1925 | +2633.3% | 0.2105 % change on previous year | 5.75 % change on previous year |
| 1821 | +1313.1% | 0.1241 % change on previous year | 1.75 % change on previous year |
| 2019 | +825.0% | -2.96 % change on previous year | 21.49 % change on previous year |
| 2013 | +764.6% | 3.59 % change on previous year | 31.08 % change on previous year |
| 1960 | +567.9% | 0.8839 % change on previous year | 5.9 % change on previous year |
| 1970 | +465.3% | -3.01 % change on previous year | 10.98 % change on previous year |
Averages by decade
| Decade | Average | Lowest | Highest | Years |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1750s | 0.1512 % change on previous year | 0.1498 % change on previous year | 0.1526 % change on previous year | 9 |
| 1760s | 0.1481 % change on previous year | 0.1466 % change on previous year | 0.1495 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1770s | 0.1446 % change on previous year | 0.143 % change on previous year | 0.1462 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1780s | 0.1407 % change on previous year | 0.139 % change on previous year | 0.1428 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1790s | 0.1364 % change on previous year | 0.1348 % change on previous year | 0.1388 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1800s | 0.1317 % change on previous year | 0.1299 % change on previous year | 0.1344 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1810s | 0.1264 % change on previous year | 0.1246 % change on previous year | 0.1295 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1820s | 1.48 % change on previous year | 0.1241 % change on previous year | 1.75 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1830s | 2.14 % change on previous year | 1.5 % change on previous year | 2.43 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1840s | 2.18 % change on previous year | 1.97 % change on previous year | 2.42 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1850s | 2.07 % change on previous year | 1.96 % change on previous year | 2.09 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1860s | 2.09 % change on previous year | 2.09 % change on previous year | 2.09 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1870s | 3.94 % change on previous year | 2.33 % change on previous year | 5.11 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1880s | 2.97 % change on previous year | 1.88 % change on previous year | 4.39 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1890s | 3.48 % change on previous year | 3.47 % change on previous year | 3.53 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1900s | 3.66 % change on previous year | 3.46 % change on previous year | 3.73 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1910s | 3.4 % change on previous year | 2.27 % change on previous year | 4.41 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1920s | 4.56 % change on previous year | 0.2105 % change on previous year | 9.85 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1930s | 0.9151 % change on previous year | -2.31 % change on previous year | 2.3 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1940s | 1.47 % change on previous year | -0.9874 % change on previous year | 3.08 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1950s | 4.89 % change on previous year | 0.8839 % change on previous year | 14.74 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1960s | 2.96 % change on previous year | -3.01 % change on previous year | 5.9 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1970s | 3.9 % change on previous year | -20.12 % change on previous year | 25.76 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1980s | 4.9 % change on previous year | 2.87 % change on previous year | 8.36 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 1990s | 7.29 % change on previous year | 2.97 % change on previous year | 11.8 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 2000s | 2.85 % change on previous year | -4.28 % change on previous year | 5.46 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 2010s | 5.16 % change on previous year | -11.02 % change on previous year | 31.08 % change on previous year | 10 |
| 2020s | -5.46 % change on previous year | -11.6 % change on previous year | -1.64 % change on previous year | 3 |
Countries ranked near Malaysia
- 164 United Kingdom -1.56 % change on previous year compare
- 165 Russia -1.62 % change on previous year compare
- 166 Fiji -1.64 % change on previous year compare
- 168 Sweden -1.67 % change on previous year compare
- 169 French Polynesia -1.75 % change on previous year compare
- 170 United States -1.76 % change on previous year compare
More climate change data for Malaysia
- Nutrient nitrogen N (total) — Synthetic fertilizers (Agricultural) 621.79 million kg (2050)
- Emissions from livestock — Emissions (CO2eq) 4,551 kt (2050)
- Emissions from livestock — Emissions (CO2eq) from N2O 1,936 kt (2050)
- Emissions from livestock — Emissions (CO2eq) from CH4 2,616 kt (2050)
- Emissions from livestock — Emissions 7.31 kt (2050)
- Emissions from livestock — Emissions 93.41 kt (2050)
- Emissions from crops — Emissions (CO2eq) 7,214 kt (2050)
- Emissions from crops — Emissions (CO2eq) from N2O 3,641 kt (2050)
- Emissions from crops — Emissions (CO2eq) from CH4 3,573 kt (2050)
- Emissions from crops — Emissions 13.74 kt (2050)
Frequently asked questions
- What is emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate in Malaysia?
- Emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate in Malaysia was -1.64 % change on previous year in 2022, according to Statizoid (derived).
- What is the highest emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate recorded in Malaysia?
- The highest recorded value was 31.08 % change on previous year in 2013.
- What is the lowest emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate recorded in Malaysia?
- The lowest recorded value was -20.12 % change on previous year in 1972.
- How does Malaysia rank for emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate?
- Malaysia ranks 167th out of 219 countries with data for 2022.
- Is emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate rising or falling in Malaysia?
- Over the last ten years it is down 145.7%. The long-run trend across the full record is volatile.
- Where does this Malaysia data come from?
- The figures come from Statizoid (derived), published as part of emissions of air pollutants, annual growth rate. Statizoid updates them automatically from the source API.
Download this data
CSV · JSON — 272 observations, free to reuse under Derived by Statizoid from the sources named on the page.
How this figure is calculated
The year-on-year percentage change in emissions of air pollutants. Computed from consecutive annual observations; years either side of a gap are skipped rather than bridged.
Computed from
- emissions of air pollutants Hoesly et al. (2024) – Community Emissions Data System (CEDS) – with major processing by Our World in Data
Statizoid computes this series; the underlying measurements belong to the publishers named above. The arithmetic is applied to every country and year where both inputs report, and nothing is estimated unless the page says so.
About this data
The year-on-year percentage change in emissions of air pollutants. Computed from consecutive annual observations; years either side of a gap are skipped rather than bridged.